Championing Equality: Where Feminism Meets Psychology
1 What is Feminist Psychology ?
Feminist psychology is a branch of psychology that critically examines social structures and gender dynamics through a feminist lens. It is oriented on the values and principles of feminism.
It strives to ensure that women's voices are equally valued and understood in psychological theory, research, and practice, alongside those of men. It seeks to create a more equitable and just approach to understanding human behavior and mental health.
The emergence of feminist psychology coincided with the flourishing feminism of the 1960s and 1970s. Feminism encompasses a range of socio-political movements and ideologies aimed at defining and establishing gender equality in political, economic, personal, and social spheres. Feminism posits that modern societies are patriarchal, prioritizing the male perspective and unjustly treating women. Efforts to change this include challenging gender stereotypes and enhancing educational, professional, and interpersonal opportunities and outcomes for women.
Influential figures of feminism like Betty Friedan, Gloria Steinem, and Simone de Beauvoir played pivotal roles in advocating for women's rights and gender equality, including within the realm of psychology.
Feminist psychologists aim to rectify the biases in psychological research and theory by highlighting the unique experiences and viewpoints of women.
It challenges traditional psychological theories that have historically been shaped by a male perspective, which often assumed men as the norm.
This perspective has marginalized women's experiences and perspectives within psychological research and practice.
They critique traditional psychological research for its sexism and advocate for a more inclusive understanding of human psychology that encompasses diverse gender identities and experiences.
2. Important Figures of Feminist Psychology
Karen Horney
Karen Horney was the first to introduce the term feminist psychology. Karen Horney disagreed with Sigmund Freud's perception that women are inherently inferior and unsuitable. Rather, she believed that it is the lack of power in society that makes women inferior. She argued that changing the social and cultural environment can unleash women's real abilities.
Mary Whiton Calkins
Mary Whiton Calkins was the first female president of the American Psychological Association and also expressed her views on women in society. She believed that there should be equal opportunities for women in the field of psychology.
Naomi Weisstein
Naomi Weisstein (January 1, 1939 - March 26, 2015) was an American cognitive psychologist, neuroscientist, author, and professor of psychology. Her primary research focused on social psychology and cognitive neuroscience. Weisstein identified as a radical feminist and utilized comedy and rock music to communicate her views and ideologies. She played a pivotal role in founding the Chicago Women's Liberation Union, which advocated for feminist causes and advancements in women's lives.
Leta Stetter Hollingworth
Leta Stetter Hollingworth (1886-1939) was a pioneering American psychologist, educator, and feminist. She made significant contributions to the fields of psychology, particularly in the psychology of women, clinical psychology, and educational psychology. Hollingworth is renowned for her research on intelligence and her groundbreaking work with gifted children. Importantly, she challenged prevailing stereotypes through her research, demonstrating women's equality in intellectual abilities. Her legacy continues to influence psychology and gender studies to this day.
Carol Gilligan
Carol Gilligan (born November 28, 1936) is an American feminist, ethicist, and psychologist, best known for her work on ethical community and ethical relationships. Gilligan is a professor of Humanities and Applied Psychology at New York University and was a visiting professor at the Centre for Gender Studies and Jesus College at the University of Cambridge until 2009. She is known for her book "In a Different Voice" (1982) and presented her ethics of care theory as an alternative to Lawrence Kohlberg's hierarchical and principled approach to ethics.
Helene Deutsch
Helene Deutsch (October 9, 1884 - March 29, 1982) was a Polish-American psychoanalyst and colleague of Sigmund Freud. She founded the Vienna Psychoanalytic Institute. In 1935, she immigrated to Cambridge, Massachusetts, where she maintained a practice. Deutsch was one of the first psychoanalysts to specialize in women.
2 Some Key Theories
Relational-cultural Theory
Relational-cultural theory pioneered by Jean Baker Miller, posits that the essence of human growth lies in nurturing relationships, while disconnection fosters psychological distress. Inspired by feminist literature like Betty Friedan's "The Feminine Mystique," this theory underscores the damaging effects of isolation and advocates reconnecting with others as pivotal to healing. Therapists, according to this perspective, should cultivate empathy and acceptance toward patients, even if it means forgoing neutrality, in order to support recovery. Central to relational-cultural theory is the belief that women are not inherently flawed but are impacted by societal perceptions and norms.
Psychoanalytic feminism
Psychoanalytical feminists believe that gender inequality comes from early childhood experiences, which lead men to believe themselves to be masculine, and women to believe themselves feminine. It is further maintained that gender leads to a social system that is dominated by males, which in turn influences the individual psycho-sexual development.
Queer Theory
Queer theory, rooted in post-structuralist thought, emerged in the 1990s from queer and women's studies. It challenges conventional norms of gender and sexuality, critiquing power structures that marginalize non-heteronormative identities. Queer theory seeks to deconstruct binary categories and explores how social constructs shape identities and behaviors.
Power-Control Theory
Power-control theory examines how power dynamics within families influence gender roles and behavior. It explores how inequalities in power manifest through control mechanisms and affect individual agency within familial and societal contexts.
Ambivalent Sexism
Ambivalent sexism theory distinguishes between hostile and benevolent sexism. Hostile sexism involves overtly negative attitudes toward women, while benevolent sexism involves seemingly positive attitudes that still reinforce traditional gender roles and inequalities. This theory highlights how seemingly positive stereotypes can perpetuate gender discrimination.
3 Current Research of Feminist Psychology
Emotion
Feminist psychology extensively examines gender disparities in emotional expression. Emotion, according to feminist psychologists, is largely shaped by cultural norms. They argue that variations primarily manifest in how emotions are outwardly displayed rather than in their internal experience.Societally enforced display rules dictate acceptable forms of emotional expression based on specific individuals and feelings.
Leadership
Social scientists extensively study the "glass ceiling effect," which symbolizes the unseen barriers hindering women's advancement in workplaces and public institutions. Despite constituting 47% of the U.S. workforce in 2010, women hold disproportionately few high-level positions: only 5% of Fortune 500 CEOs and 19% of S&P500 board members in 2014. Women of color face even greater underrepresentation. Structural factors, such as the "sticky floor effect" and the "maternal wall," further impede progress by limiting job pathways and opportunities after childbirth.
Cultural biases and stereotypes also play pivotal roles. Women may encounter challenges in receiving mentorship and advancing in male-dominated environments, where traits perceived as non-feminine are often disregarded. Additionally, tensions stemming from cultural differences between managers and employees, especially regarding race, contribute to workplace discrimination and hinder trust.
Research highlights differing perceptions of leadership styles between genders but concludes that both are equally effective. Despite these challenges, efforts towards diversity, inclusive leadership, and addressing unconscious biases are crucial for achieving gender equality in professional settings.
Violence
Feminist perspectives highlight that gender-based violence is prevalent and manifests in various forms such as domestic violence, sexual harassment, childhood sexual abuse, sexual assault, and rape. This violence, whether physical or psychological, cuts across boundaries of race, economic status, age, ethnicity, and geographic location. Typically, the perpetrator is someone known to the victim, although instances involving strangers also occur. The impact of such violence on women can be profound and enduring, with reactions varying widely among individuals. Some women experience emotions like fear, anxiety, and anger, while others may attempt to suppress their feelings and deny the occurrence altogether. Often, victims blame themselves, grappling with feelings of justification or deservingness.
Psychologically, many women affected by violence develop disorders such as post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) or depression. Beyond psychological consequences, physical injuries are also common, necessitating medical attention.
Mental Health
Mental health issues such as depression and eating disorders are significant concerns in feminist psychology, stemming from gender and social inequality. Feminist psychologists recognize that these issues disproportionately affect women, influenced by social and cultural factors.
Gender Differences and Equality
Examines societal, psychological, and behavioral distinctions between men and women, exploring their impact on individual development, growth, and social interactions. Emphasizes the significance of gender equality and advocates for policy and practice reforms to mitigate gender discrimination and bias.
Global Perspectives
Expands the scope of feminist psychology globally, addressing women's issues across diverse countries and regions. Encourages international collaboration and exchange, emphasizing both the diversity and universality of feminist psychological principles within the context of globalization. Contributes to the advancement of a more equitable and just society.
4. The Evolution of Feminist Psychology
Contributions of Early Advocates
Karen Horney: Introduced the term "feminist psychology" and challenged Freud's belief in women's inherent inferiority, attributing it instead to societal structures. She advocated for social and cultural changes to unleash women's true potential.
Mary Whiton Calkins: The first female president of the American Psychological Association, advocated for equal opportunities for women in the field of psychology.
The Impact of Political Campaigns
Women's Suffrage Movement (19th-20th centuries): The women's suffrage movement marked a turning point in women's lives as they fought for the right to vote. It highlighted essential issues like political representation and gender equality, impacting the field of psychology.
The Second Wave of Feminism (1960s-1970s): The women's liberation movement addressed issues from reproductive rights to gender equality. Its results became evident in many fields, including psychology.
Development Trajectory
Emergence Phase: Before the establishment of Division 35 (Society for the Psychology of Women, SPW), feminist psychology was primarily promoted by organizations such as the "Association for Women in Psychology" and the "Committee on Women in Psychology" within the American Psychological Association (APA). During this period, feminist psychology began to gain attention, although it had not yet formed a distinct organizational structure.
Organizational Consolidation: The founding of SPW provided feminist psychology with an independent platform for advancement. SPW recognized the diversity and commonalities among women by establishing various subsections, including African American Women's Psychology, the Feminist Training and Practice Committee, Hispanic Women's Concerns Committee, Lesbian and Bisexual Women's Issues Committee, and Asian American Women's Concerns Committee, ensuring inclusivity and multicultural perspectives.
Maturation and Expansion: Through publications such as the "Psychology of Women Quarterly," SPW continuously advanced feminist psychology's theoretical research and practical applications. Over its 35-year history, SPW has earned numerous awards and engaged actively in activities such as mentoring students and early-career psychologists, implementing mentorship programs, publishing newsletters, and maintaining a website, solidifying its leadership in feminist psychology. SPW's collaborations with other organizations, including its role in founding APA Division 51 (Men and Masculinities), demonstrate its interdisciplinary cooperation and inclusive approach.
5 Feminist Therapy
Feminist therapy is a specialized form of psychotherapy that focuses on gender issues and explores the unique stressors that women face due to biases, discrimination, and other factors impacting their mental health.
Emerging in response to the historically male-dominated field of psychology, feminist therapy aims to provide a therapeutic environment where women can address their concerns without encountering the misogyny and sexism that had pervaded the field until then.
Types
Liberal feminism: This approach focuses on empowering women to overcome societal constraints through personal empowerment. It emphasizes individual empowerment rather than a broader societal perspective seen in other feminist therapies.
Cultural feminism: Advocates for a more nurturing and gentle society that values feminine traits. Cultural feminism critiques societal oppression rooted in gender differences while highlighting women's strengths.
Radical feminism: Through this lens, therapy examines the deep-seated impacts of oppression on women, particularly the influence of patriarchy. Radical feminist therapy views all therapeutic interactions as inherently political and a means for enacting broader societal change.
Socialist feminism: This form of feminist therapy targets systemic societal changes to dismantle oppressive institutions. It also examines intersecting identities of marginalized groups, addressing additional oppressions based on factors like socioeconomic status, race, sexuality, and religion
Techniques
Sex Role Analysis: In feminist therapy, this technique involves critically examining how cultural conditioning perpetuates biased structures. Women are taught from birth which behaviors are deemed appropriate, facing consequences if they deviate. These gender stereotypes, imparted by family, media, school, and work environments, shape belief systems and self-expectations. Through therapy, women identify these messages, explore their internalization, and decide which norms to embrace or challenge.
Power Analysis: This technique focuses on analyzing power differentials between women and men in society. Women are often relegated to roles of submissiveness and inferiority due to institutionalized sexism and traditional gender roles. Feminist therapy aims to empower women by challenging interpersonal and institutional inequalities, thereby fostering greater autonomy and assertiveness.
Assertiveness Training: Traditionally associated with masculinity, assertiveness is a key focus in feminist therapy. Therapists help women distinguish assertive behaviors from passivity or aggression, address beliefs that inhibit assertiveness, and practice assertiveness through role-playing exercises. Studies indicate that assertiveness training enhances self-esteem and confidence among women.
Help What
Rape/domestic violence
Career counseling
Complex trauma
PTSD
Severe mental illnesses, including schizophrenia, schizoaffective disorder, bipolar disorder, personality disorders
Socioeconomic issues
Life stage issues
Sexual orientation
Physical disability
6 Resources and Further Reading
Books
The Psychology of Women
Feminist Therapy
Feminist Perspectives on Family Care: Policies for Gender Justice
In a Different Voice: Psychological Theory and Women's Development
Feminism and Psychology: Analysis of a Century of Research
Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity
The Beauty Myth: How Images of Beauty Are Used Against Women
Articles
Feminist Psychology: A Brief Overview
The Impact of Feminist Psychology on Mental Health
Feminist Therapies: A Review of the Literature
Gender and Mental Health: A Review of the Literature
Organizations
Association for Women in Psychology (AWP)
Established in 1969 due to perceived neglect by the American Psychological Association (APA) towards the Women's Liberation Movement.
Aims to advocate for feminist issues within the field of psychology.
Played a pivotal role in the creation of APA Division 35 (Society for the Psychology of Women) in 1973.
APA Division 35: Society for the Psychology of Women
Established in 1973 to support psychology focused on women's issues.
Promotes feminist perspectives in psychology education and practice.
Manages committees, projects, and programs within the division.
Section on Women and Psychology (SWAP) - Canadian Psychological Association (CPA)
Aims to advance women's status in psychology and promote equity.
Supports initiatives like Psychology's Feminist Voices.
Addresses challenges women face in scientific productivity and career advancem
Psychology of Women Section (BPS) - British Psychological Society (BPS)
Founded in 1988 to unite interests in the psychology of women.
Provides a platform for research, teaching, and professional support.
Raises awareness about gender issues and inequalities in psychology.
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