Ambivalent sexism: Hostility and Benevolence

1 Introduction

Ambivalent sexism is a theoretical framework which posits that sexism has two sub-components: "hostile sexism" (HS)[1] and "benevolent sexism" (BS).[1] Hostile sexism reflects overtly negative evaluations and stereotypes about a gender (e.g., the ideas that women are incompetent and inferior to men). Benevolent sexism represents evaluations of gender that may appear subjectively positive (subjective to the person who is evaluating), but are actually damaging to people and gender equality more broadly (e.g., the ideas that women need to be protected by men).[2] For the most part, psychologists have studied hostile forms of sexism. The theory has largely been developed by social psychologists Peter Glick and Susan Fiske.

2 Definition

Sexism, a form of bias rooted in perceptions of one gender as superior, leads to discrimination based on socially constructed gender roles. It is associated with patriarchal structures and hostile attitudes toward women. While typically seen as hostility toward women, both men and women can endorse sexist beliefs. The concept of ambivalent sexism expands the traditional view by encompassing both positive and negative attitudes toward women. This multidimensional approach challenges the historical focus on overt hostility and recognizes the damaging effects of rigid gender roles for both men and women. Ambivalent sexism represents a significant contribution to the study of gender-based prejudice, offering a more nuanced understanding of the complexities of sexist attitudes.

3 Theoretical framework

Glick and Fiske's assertion about hostile and benevolent sexism: They argue that both forms of sexism reinforce traditional gender roles and maintain patriarchal social structures, with the assumption that women are inferior and restricted to lower social status.

Hostile sexism

Reflects misogyny and is expressed through negative evaluations of women, such as beliefs about women being incompetent, unintelligent, overly emotional, and sexually manipulative.

Benevolent sexism

Reflects seemingly positive evaluations of women, such as revering women in traditional roles like wife, mother, and caretaker. It may not appear harmful on the surface, but it restricts women's opportunities and implies that women are weak and need protection, should adhere to traditional roles, and should be idolized by men for their purity and availability.

Identification of benevolently sexist attitudes

People often do not recognize these beliefs as a form of gender-based prejudice due to their seemingly positive nature, and both men and women may see them as reinforcing the status quo.

Examples include modern-day chivalry traditions and interactions between women and men, where certain actions may be rooted in historical representations of women as weaker than men, making it difficult to distinguish between kindness, tradition, and benevolent sexism.

Disagreement between men and women

Men and women may disagree on whether specific incidents should be considered sexist, though they generally agree more on extreme and overt expressions of sexism, as hostile sexism is easier to identify as an expression of prejudice.
Women are rarely perceived as entirely hostile or benevolent, and individuals often report high levels of both benevolent and hostile sexism. Both women and men can endorse ambivalently sexist attitudes about women, and there are individual differences in people's levels of benevolent and hostile sexism.
Despite evidence that both men and women can support ambivalently sexist attitudes, people find it challenging to believe that others can endorse both benevolent and hostile sexism. Research suggests that individuals feel it is unlikely that one person can embody both forms of bias.

4 Three Subcomponents

Glick and Fiske's theoretical framework suggests that each form of sexism（hostile and benevolent）is composed of three subcomponents: paternalism, gender differentiation, and heterosexuality.

Paternalism

Hostile Sexism (HS): Dominative paternalism implies that men should exert control over women.
Benevolent Sexism (BS): Protective paternalism suggests that men should protect and care for women.

Gender Differentiation:

Hostile Sexism (HS): Competitive gender differentiation reinforces the belief in men's superiority over women.
Benevolent Sexism (BS): Complementary gender differentiation emphasizes traditional gender roles for women, such as being a mother and a wife, and assumes that men depend on women to fulfill these roles.

Heterosexuality:

Hostile Sexism (HS): Heterosexual hostility views women as sexual objects for men's pleasure and promotes the fear of women's capacity to manipulate men through sexual activity.
Benevolent Sexism (BS): Intimate heterosexuality romanticizes women as having sexual purity and views romantic intimacy as necessary to complete a man.

According to this framework, the subcomponents of both hostile and benevolent sexism serve distinct functions, with dominant paternalism and competitive gender differentiation reinforcing men's authority and superiority in hostile sexism, while protective paternalism and complementary gender differentiation support traditional gender roles for women in benevolent sexism. Additionally, heterosexual hostility in hostile sexism objectifies women and fears their potential to manipulate men through sexuality, while intimate heterosexuality in benevolent sexism idealizes women's sexual purity and views romantic intimacy as essential for men's fulfillment.

5 Ambivalent Sexism Inventory

The Ambivalent Sexism Inventory (ASI), developed by Glick and Fiske in 1996, is the primary method used to measure an individual's endorsement of ambivalent sexism. It is a 22-item self-report measure on which respondents indicate their level of agreement with statements using a 6-point Likert scale. The ASI consists of two sub-scales that can be independently calculated or averaged for an overall composite sexism score.

Hostile sexism sub-scale

Comprising 11 items designed to assess dominative paternalism, competitive gender differentiation, and heterosexual hostility. Sample item: "Women are too easily offended."

Benevolent sexism sub-scale

Comprising 11 items to assess protective paternalism, complementary gender differentiation, and heterosexual intimacy. Sample item: "Women should be cherished and protected by men."

The inventory has been rigorously studied over fifteen years, demonstrating strong empirical reliability and validity. It has consistently shown high internal consistency through a Cronbach's alpha coefficient above 0.80, indicating strong reliability. Additionally, it effectively measures a polarized attitude towards women, with both dimensions being activated simultaneously.
The ASI has been widely validated across different cultures, suggesting that hostile and benevolent components of sexism are not culturally specific. Furthermore, research has also indicated the existence of ambivalently sexist attitudes towards men, further supporting the framework of ambivalent sexism.
One critique of the ASI is its reliance on self-reported measures, which may be prone to social desirability bias. To address this, some researchers have used variations of the ASI that do not require self-reports, such as transforming items into scenarios or observing sexist behaviors in field studies.
Finally, while Glick and Fiske proposed the ASI as a unique tool for assessing ambivalent sexism, other studies have suggested that the Modern Sexism Scale captures ambivalence toward women as well. However, the ASI stands out in its capability to separately measure hostile and benevolent attitudes, capturing additional dimensions such as heterosexual intimacy and benevolent paternalism.

6 Research

Many people endorse both benevolent and hostile sexism, but research suggests that individuals rated significantly higher in one of these components have distinct beliefs and behavior patterns. This means that those high in benevolent sexism show different attitudes than those high in hostile sexism. The independence of these types of sexism in predicting human behavior shows that they are discrete forms of bias on separate but related axes. Research findings also highlight the different outcomes between benevolent sexism and hostile sexism, as well as their relationships with other attitudes and behaviors.

Close relationships and attraction

Research indicates that sexist attitudes are linked to preferences for specific traits in romantic partners. Women with higher levels of benevolent sexism tend to have more traditional preferences in male partners, valuing financial security and resources. On the other hand, men with higher levels of hostile sexism prioritize physical attractiveness in female partners. Furthermore, benevolent sexism is associated with mate selection, while hostile sexism predicts marriage norms after pairing.

Women in the workplace

In the workplace, while the impact of hostile sexism is well-known, research suggests that benevolent sexism may significantly affect women's cognitive performance. Hostile sexism can trigger feelings of anger or frustration, potentially increasing a woman's motivation to succeed. On the other hand, benevolent sexism, with its seemingly positive evaluations and implicit attributions, may hinder a woman's confidence and performance.

Plan A vs. Plan B

Benevolent sexism is sometimes referred to as Plan A, aiming to portray remarks as 'good' or 'positive' to encourage women to assume subordinate roles. This targets a woman's need to be protected by a male, which may not seem as harmful to some women. In contrast, Plan B or hostile sexism takes a more aggressive approach, using harsh remarks that can provoke stronger reactions from women.

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