**Feminism is it ? **
1. What is Feminism?
Feminism encompasses a range of socio-political movements and ideologies aimed at defining and establishing gender equality in political, economic, personal, and social spheres. Feminism posits that modern societies are patriarchal, prioritizing the male perspective and unjustly treating women. Efforts to change this include challenging gender stereotypes and enhancing educational, professional, and interpersonal opportunities and outcomes for women.
2. The History of Feminism: Four Waves of Feminism
First-wave feminism (19th to early 20th centuries)
First-wave feminism focused on equal contract, marriage, parenting, and property rights for women, leading to suffrage movements in countries like New Zealand and the UK by the late 19th century.
United Kingdom
In the UK, the suffragette movement led by Emmeline Pankhurst and the Women's Social and Political Union (WSPU) fought fiercely for women's right to vote. The Representation of the People Act 1918 granted voting rights to women over 30 who met minimum property requirements, and full equal suffrage was achieved in 1928.
France
French women were actively involved in feminist movements, with notable figures like Olympe de Gouges advocating for women's rights during the French Revolution. However, it was not until after World War II that French women gained the right to vote in 1944.
Germany
In Germany, women's suffrage was granted in 1918 following the end of World War I and the German Revolution. The Weimar Constitution recognized gender equality, but the rise of the Nazi regime reversed many gains until after World War II.
China
China's feminist movement began in the late Qing Dynasty, influenced by Western ideas. The May Fourth Movement in 1919 emphasized gender equality, and the founding of the People's Republic of China in 1949 enshrined women's rights in law.
In Pre-1949,the early women's movement in China focused on eradicating the assumption that women were inferior to men. The early reformers believed that women needed help to improve their own attitudes about themselves, since even the women generally considered themselves to be inferior to men. The Chinese Communist Party (CCP) had shown an early interest in protecting the rights of women. During the 2nd National Congress in 1922, the party issued a statement arguing for the end of Chinese traditions that repress women. They also released a formal letter ensuring equality under the law for both men and women, and guaranteed equal pay for both genders during the 3rd National Congress.
When the CCP entered the First United Front to fight warlords and unite China from 1924 to 1927 with the Kuomintang (KMT), each party established their own women's department during this time. However, the United Front ended with the Shanghai massacre in 1927, where the KMT launched an attack to purge communists and laborers. The ideas about liberating Chinese women from Confucian values were only permitted within the territory under CCP rule. These territories were called soviets, and were the places the CCP fled to following the White Terror because they were not under the control of the KMT. The KMT championed traditional Confucian ideals about women, and they established the New Life Movement, which sought to counter the gender role espoused by the CCP with traditional Confucian gender roles supported by the KMT. The CCP's time in the soviets from 1927 to 1945 also gave them the opportunity to develop the skills for organizing federations and governing, which greatly facilitated the founding of the ACWF later.[4]
The Chinese women's movement gained a new momentum with The War of Resistance against Japanese Aggression (1937–1945). Leaders of the women's movement expressed nationalist sentiments in response to the threat the war posed to their daily lives. These leaders called for the liberation of women to defend the nation. The number of official women's organization within the CCP at one of the soviets, Yan’an, grew during the invasion. In March 1938, at the First Women's Congress held by the Women's Federation of Shaan-Gan-Ning (a forerunner to the ACWF) in a different communist-controlled area, the leaders of the women's movement began to form their nationalist ideas into an agenda. The women in attendance stated that the goal of the women's movement should be to unite women and to work together to liberate China. The First Women's Congress also outlined goals for the women's movement such as: helping women escape abusive marriages, improving women's health, eradicating the practice of foot binding, ending domestic abuse, and protecting women's inheritance rights.[4] The ACWF would adopt many of the same goals in 1949.[3]
The All-China Democratic Women's Federation (ACWF) was established on 24 March 1949 as China's first country-wide women's organization, It was originally called the All-China Democratic Women's Foundation, and would be renamed the All-China Women's Federation on 3 April 1949.
The organization began as a federation of various regional women's groups with the dual goals of building a socialist China and promoting the status of women.
It is responsible for promoting government policies on women, and protecting women's rights within the government, while liberating them from traditional norms within society and involving them in social revolution with the aim to promote their overall status and welfare in Chinese society.
Middle East
In the Middle East, women's rights movements have faced significant challenges. Turkey granted women the right to vote in 1934 under Mustafa Kemal Atatürk's reforms. In other countries, progress has been slower and continues to face cultural and religious obstacles.
Africa
African women's movements have been diverse and multifaceted, addressing issues from colonialism to modern-day gender inequality. South African women, for instance, played a crucial role in the anti-apartheid movement and have continued to advocate for gender equality.
USA
At USA(1848 - 1920), The first organized movement aimed at gaining rights for American women effectively began in July 1848, with the convention organized by Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott at Seneca Falls, New York. Attendees signed the Declaration of Sentiments, which affirmed women’s equality with men, and passed a dozen resolutions calling for various specific rights, including the right to vote.
Although the early women’s rights movement was linked to abolitionism, passage of the 15th Amendment in 1870 angered some women’s rights leaders who resented Black men being granted suffrage before white women. Similarly, the women’s suffrage movement also largely marginalized or excluded Black feminists like Sojourner Truth and Ida B. Wells. Though ratification of the 19th Amendment in 1920 fulfilled the principal goal of feminism’s first wave—guaranteeing white women the right to vote—Black women and other women of color faced continued obstacles until passage of the Voting Rights Act of 1965.
Second-wave Feminism (Mid-20th century)
Second-wave feminism aimed to address broader gender inequalities, emphasizing the personal as political.
United Kingdom
The 1960s and 70s saw a resurgence of feminism in the UK, with the establishment of the Women's Liberation Movement. Key events included the 1970 Miss World protest and the 1975 Sex Discrimination Act.
France
French feminism in the second wave was marked by influential works like Simone de Beauvoir's The Second Sex and the activism of groups such as Mouvement de Libération des Femmes (MLF). The 1970s saw significant advancements in reproductive rights and workplace equality.
Germany
In Germany, the second wave focused on reproductive rights, anti-discrimination laws, and gender roles. The feminist movement gained momentum with the founding of groups like Aktion 218, which campaigned for abortion rights.
China
The Cultural Revolution (1966-1976) in China had complex effects on gender equality. While it promoted women's participation in the workforce, it also enforced strict gender roles. Post-Mao reforms in the 1980s began addressing these issues more directly.
Middle East
In Iran, the 1979 revolution initially set back women's rights, but feminist movements have continued to push for reforms. In other parts of the Middle East, the second wave brought gradual changes, often met with significant resistance.
Africa
African feminism during the second wave often intersected with anti-colonial and anti-apartheid struggles. Women's roles in liberation movements were crucial, and post-independence, many continued to fight for gender equality.
USA
At USA(1963 - 1980s), In 1963, Betty Friedan published The Feminine Mystique, which argued that women were chafing against the confines of their roles as wives and mothers. The book was a massive success, selling 3 million copies in three years and launching what became known as the second wave of feminism. Inspired by the civil rights movement and protests against the Vietnam War, second-wave feminists called for a reevaluation of traditional gender roles in society and an end to sexist discrimination.
Feminism—or "women’s liberation"—gained strength as a political force in the 1970s, as Friedan, Gloria Steinem, and Bella Abzug founded the National Women’s Political Caucus in 1971. High points of the second wave included passage of the Equal Pay Act and the landmark Supreme Court decisions in Griswold v. Connecticut (1965) and Roe v. Wade (1973) related to reproductive freedom. But while Congress passed the Equal Rights Amendment in 1972, a conservative backlash ensured it fell short of the number of states needed for ratification.
Like the suffrage movement, second-wave feminism drew criticism for centering privileged white women, and some Black women formed their own feminist organizations, including the National Black Feminist Organization (NBFO). Despite its achievements, the women’s liberation movement had begun to lose momentum by 1980, when conservative forces swept Ronald Reagan to the White House.
Third-wave Feminism (Late 20th and early 21st centuries)
Third-wave feminism challenged essentialist views of femininity and integrated intersectional perspectives.
United Kingdom
The third wave in the UK saw a focus on intersectionality, with increased attention to issues affecting women of different races, classes, and sexual orientations. The movement also embraced popular culture and media to spread its message.
France
French third-wave feminism emphasized sexual freedom, body autonomy, and intersectionality. Influential voices included writers and activists like Elisabeth Badinter and the emergence of feminist blogs and online communities.
Germany
In Germany, the third wave tackled issues like sexual harassment, reproductive rights, and the gender pay gap. The movement also became more inclusive of LGBTQ+ rights and intersectional concerns.
China
China's third wave began addressing more diverse issues, including LGBTQ+ rights, domestic violence, and workplace discrimination. The rise of the internet allowed feminist voices to reach a broader audience.
Middle East
The third wave in the Middle East focused on challenging patriarchal norms and advocating for legal reforms. Activists used social media to organize and spread awareness, often facing severe repercussions.
Africa
African third-wave feminism continued to address issues like gender-based violence, economic inequality, and political representation. The movement became more inclusive, recognizing the diverse experiences of women across the continent.
USA
At USA(1990s), While the advances of second-wave feminism had undoubtedly achieved more equality and rights for women, the movement that emerged in the early 1990s focused on tackling problems that still existed, including sexual harassment in the workplace and a shortage of women in positions of power. Rebecca Walker, the mixed-race daughter of second-wave leader Alice Walker, announced the arrival of feminism’s "third wave" in 1992, while watching Anita Hill testify before the Senate Judiciary Committee about her accusations of sexual harassment against Supreme Court nominee Clarence Thomas. That same year, dubbed the "Year of the Woman," saw an unprecedented number of women elected to Congress.
Embracing the spirit of rebellion instead of reform, third-wave feminists encouraged women to express their sexuality and individuality. Many embraced a more traditionally feminine style of dress and grooming, and even rejected the term "feminist" as a way of distancing themselves from their second-wave predecessors. "Riot grrl" groups like Bikini Kill, Bratmobile, and Heavens to Betsy brought their brand of feminism into pop music, including songs that addressed issues of sexism, patriarchy, abuse, racism, and rape.
Third wave feminism also sought to be more inclusive when it came to race and gender. The work of scholar and theorist Kimberlé Crenshaw on the concept of "intersectionality," or how types of oppression (based on race, class, gender, etc.) can overlap, was particularly influential in this area. Third-wave feminists also drew on the work of gender theorist Judith Butler, including support for trans rights in this type of intersectional feminism.
Fourth-wave Feminism (starting around 2012)
Fourth-wave feminism leverages social media to combat sexual harassment and violence against women, highlighted by movements like #MeToo and campaigns such as the Women's Marches. These waves reflect the evolving global discourse on feminism, from political rights to cultural identities.
United Kingdom
Fourth-wave feminism in the UK has been driven by campaigns against sexual harassment, such as #MeToo and #TimesUp. Activists have also focused on issues like period poverty, reproductive rights, and trans inclusivity.
France
In France, the fourth wave has seen movements like #BalanceTonPorc (the French equivalent of #MeToo) gaining momentum. Feminists continue to challenge sexual harassment, domestic violence, and systemic inequality.
Germany
German fourth-wave feminism addresses digital activism, gender-based violence, and workplace equality. The movement also focuses on dismantling systemic racism and supporting refugee and immigrant women.
China
The internet has been a crucial tool for fourth-wave feminism in China, with social media campaigns highlighting issues like sexual harassment and gender discrimination. Despite censorship, activists continue to push for change.
Middle East
In the Middle East, fourth-wave feminism is leveraging social media to address issues such as gender-based violence, legal inequalities, and cultural norms. Activists face significant risks but continue to advocate for women's rights.
Africa
Fourth-wave feminism in Africa uses digital platforms to address gender-based violence, economic empowerment, and political representation. Movements like #TotalShutdown in South Africa highlight the ongoing struggle for gender equality.
Australia
In Australia, the fourth wave has focused on addressing issues like workplace harassment, gender pay gaps, and reproductive rights. Activists have used social media to organize and advocate for policy changes.
USA
At USA(Present Day), Though fourth wave feminism is relatively difficult to define—as some people argue it’s simply a continuation of the third wave—the emergence of the Internet has certainly led to a new brand of social media-fueled activism. Launched by Tarana Burke in 2007, the #MeToo movement took off in 2017 in the wake of revelations about the sexual misconduct of influential film producer Harvey Weinstein.
In addition to holding powerful men accountable for their actions, fourth-wave feminists are turning their attention to the systems that allow such misconduct to occur. Like their predecessors in the feminist cause, they also continue to grapple with the concept of intersectionality, and how the movement can be inclusive and representative regardless of sexuality, race, class, and gender.
3. The Theory of Feminism
Liberal Feminism
Liberal feminism advocates for gender equality through legal and policy changes. It prioritizes individual rights and equal opportunities, aiming to eliminate gender discrimination by ensuring equal access to education and career advancement.
Representative Figures: Betty Friedan, Mary Wollstonecraft
Main Points:
- Advocates for equal educational and career opportunities.
- Supports legal reforms such as Equal Employment Opportunity laws and anti-discrimination laws.
- Emphasizes individual rights and freedom.
Radical Feminism
Radical feminism views gender oppression as the fundamental form of social oppression, from which all other forms of oppression stem. It advocates for radical change in societal structures and gender relations to eliminate male domination over women.
Representative Figures: Kate Millett, Andrea Dworkin
Main Points:
- Believes existing social systems are fundamentally patriarchal.
- Emphasizes violence and sexuality as tools of male domination over women.
- Advocates for creating Self-help and support networks for women.
Marxist Feminism
Marxist feminism attributes women's oppression to the capitalist system, viewing economic factors as the root cause of gender inequality. It advocates for gender equality through socialist revolution.
Representative Figures: Friedrich Engels, Sheila Rowbotham
Main Points:
- Believes women's domestic labor is undervalued by societal and economic structures.
- Emphasizes the united struggle of the working class and women.
- Supports thorough transformation of economic and social structures.
Socialist Feminism
Socialist feminism combines Marxist and radical feminist perspectives, seeing gender and class oppression as intertwined forms of oppression. It advocates for comprehensive social change by altering economic and gender relations.
Representative Figures: Juliet Mitchell, Alison Jaggar
Main Points:
- Emphasizes dual oppression of class and gender.
- Supports achieving gender equality through political and economic reforms.
- Advocates for establishing equal gender relations and social systems.
Other Newer Forms of Feminism
Cultural Feminism
Cultural feminism emphasizes the value and importance of feminine qualities, asserting that women's culture and experiences have unique worth. It advocates for societal change through promoting women's culture and values.
Representative Figures: Mary Daly, Susan Griffin
Key Points:
- Emphasizes traits such as cooperation, caring, and non-violence in women.
- Supports the development and promotion of women's art, literature, and culture.
- Believes women should find strength and pride in their own culture.
Ecofeminism
Ecofeminism combines feminism with environmentalism, positing that ecological destruction and women's oppression share common roots. It advocates for social, ecological, and gender justice through respecting nature and women.
Representative Figures: Vandana Shiva, Ynestra King
Key Points: - Emphasizes the close connection between nature and women.
- Opposes industrialization and globalization for their dual exploitation of the environment and women.
- Supports sustainable development and ecological protection.
Black Feminism
Black feminism highlights intersecting forms of oppression based on race, gender, and class, with a particular focus on the unique experiences and struggles of Black women. It advocates for understanding and addressing issues of female oppression through a dual lens of race and gender.
Representative Figures: bell hooks, Kimberlé Crenshaw
Key Points: - Emphasizes intersectional oppression based on race and gender.
- Supports the unique struggles of Black women against racism and sexism.
- Advocates for multiculturalism and an inclusive society.
4. Important Figures of Feminism
Simone de Beauvoir
Simone de Beauvoir (1908-1986) was a French existentialist philosopher, writer, and feminist activist who profoundly influenced feminist theory. Her seminal work, "The Second Sex" (1949), analyzed women's oppression and remains a cornerstone of modern feminism. Beauvoir authored novels like "She Came to Stay" (1943) and "The Mandarins" (1954), alongside memoirs such as "Memoirs of a Dutiful Daughter" (1958), celebrated for their vivid portrayal of her life. Despite accolades like the Prix Goncourt and the Jerusalem Prize, her career was marked by controversy, including accusations of misconduct and advocacy for contentious causes like the abolition of age of consent laws in France.
Ruth Bader Ginsburg
Ruth Bader Ginsburg, born March 15, 1933, was a pioneering American lawyer and jurist. Appointed to the Supreme Court in 1993 by President Bill Clinton, she was celebrated as the first Jewish woman on the Court and the second woman overall, following Sandra Day O'Connor. Known for her reasoned majority opinions in landmark cases like United States v. Virginia, she later gained fame for her impassioned dissents, which reflected her liberal legal perspective. Ginsburg's advocacy for gender equality began early in her career, where she worked extensively with the ACLU, arguing numerous cases before the Supreme Court. Her legacy as a trailblazer and advocate continued until her death on September 18, 2020.
Chizuko Ueno
Chizuko Ueno (上野 千鶴子, Ueno Chizuko, born July 12, 1948, in Toyama Prefecture) is a Japanese sociologist and Japan's "best-known feminist." Her work covers sociological issues including semiotics, capitalism, and feminism in Japan. Ueno is known for the quality, polarizing nature, and accessibility of her work.
5. Societal Impact
The feminist movement has effected change in Western society, including women's suffrage; greater access to education; more equal payment to men; the right to initiate divorce proceedings; the right of women to make individual decisions regarding pregnancy (including access to contraceptives and abortion); and the right to own property.
6. Societal Groups
https://www.womenofchina.cn/
https://now.org/
7. Books
Invisible Women: Data Bias in a World Designed for Men by Caroline Criado Perez
"Invisible Women: Data Bias in a World Designed for Men" by Caroline Criado Perez explores the pervasive gender data gap that affects women’s lives across various domains, from healthcare to urban planning. Perez argues that many systems, policies, and practices are designed based on male-centric data, leading to disparities that disadvantage women. The book highlights real-world examples and case studies to demonstrate how this data gap contributes to systemic inequality and proposes solutions to address these biases. Perez’s work underscores the importance of incorporating gender-disaggregated data to create more equitable systems and improve women’s lives.
The Second Sex by Simone de Beauvoir
"The Second Sex" by Simone de Beauvoir is a foundational text in feminist philosophy and gender studies. Published in 1949, the book explores the historical and existential dimensions of women's oppression. De Beauvoir examines how women have been historically relegated to a secondary role in society, shaped by patriarchy and cultural norms. She introduces the concept of women as the "Other" in relation to men, critiquing how societal structures and philosophical traditions contribute to women's subordination. De Beauvoir's work is a critical analysis of gender roles and a call for women's liberation and equality.
The Modern Family in Japan: Its Rise and Fall (Japanese Society Series)
"The Modern Family in Japan: Its Rise and Fall" explores the evolution of family structures in Japan, focusing on the changing roles of women within the family and society. The book delves into the historical context of Japan's family system, examining how traditional roles have been challenged and transformed over time. It discusses the impact of modernization, economic shifts, and social policies on gender dynamics within the family. This work is crucial for understanding the intersection of gender, culture, and social change in Japan, highlighting the struggles and progress of women in a rapidly changing society.
Nationalism and Gender: Japanese Society Series
"Nationalism and Gender" examines the complex relationship between nationalist ideologies and gender roles in Japan. The book discusses how nationalist movements have historically influenced and reinforced traditional gender roles, often positioning women as symbols of cultural purity or motherhood. It also explores how women have navigated and challenged these roles within nationalist discourses. By analyzing the intersection of gender and nationalism, this work sheds light on the broader implications for women's rights and gender equality in Japan and other similar contexts.
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