Understanding the History of Psychology: Origins, Key Figures, and Modern Approaches

What Is Psychology?

Psychology is the scientific field in which we study our thought processes, emotions, and behavior.

Understand the Etymology of the Word "Psychology"

In Greek mythology, Psyche was a mortal woman whose beauty was so great that it rivaled that of the goddess Aphrodite. Aphrodite became so jealous of Psyche that she sent her son, Eros, to make Psyche fall in love with the ugliest man in the world.

However, Eros accidentally pricked himself with the tip of his arrow and fell madly in love with Psyche himself. He took Psyche to his palace and showered her with gifts, yet she could never see his face. While visiting Psyche, her sisters roused suspicion in Psyche about her mysterious lover, and eventually, Psyche betrayed Eros’ wishes to remain unseen to her.

Because of this betrayal, Eros abandoned Psyche.

When Psyche appealed to Aphrodite to reunite her with Eros, Aphrodite gave her a series of impossible tasks to complete. Psyche managed to complete all of these trials; ultimately, her perseverance paid off as she was reunited with Eros and was ultimately transformed into a goddess herself.

Psyche comes to represent the human soul’s triumph over the misfortunes of life in the pursuit of true happiness.

In fact, the Greek word psyche means soul, and it is often represented as a butterfly. The word psychology was coined at a time when the concepts of soul and mind were not as clearly distinguished.

The root ology denotes scientific study of, and psychology refers to the scientific study of the mind.

Since science studies only observable phenomena and the mind is not directly observable, we expand this definition to the scientific study of mind and behavior.

The scientific study of any aspect of the world uses the scientific method to acquire knowledge.

To apply the scientific method, a researcher with a question about how or why something happens will propose a tentative explanation, called a hypothesis, to explain the phenomenon.

A hypothesis is not just any explanation; it should fit into the context of a scientific theory.

A scientific theory is a broad explanation or group of explanations for some aspect of the natural world that is consistently supported by evidence over time.

A theory is the best understanding that we have of that part of the natural world. Armed with the hypothesis, the researcher then makes observations or, better still, carries out an experiment to test the validity of the hypothesis.

That test and its results are then published so that others can check the results or build on them.

It is necessary that any explanation in science be testable, which means that the phenomenon must be perceivable and measurable.

For example, that a bird sings because it is happy is not a testable hypothesis, since we have no way to measure the happiness of a bird.

We must ask a different question, perhaps about the brain state of the bird, since this can be measured. In general, science deals only with matter and energy, that is, those things that can be measured, and it cannot arrive at knowledge about values and morality. This is one reason why our scientific understanding of the mind is so limited, since thoughts, at least as we experience them, are neither matter nor energy. The scientific method is also a form of empiricism. An empirical method for acquiring knowledge is one based on observation, including experimentation, rather than a method based only on forms of logical argument or previous authorities.

It was not until the late 1800s that psychology became accepted as its own academic discipline. Before this time, the workings of the mind were considered under the auspices of philosophy. Given that any behavior is, at its roots, biological, some areas of psychology take on aspects of a natural science like biology. No biological organism exists in isolation, and our behavior is influenced by our interactions with others. Therefore, psychology is also a social science.

Merits of an Education in Psychology

Often, students take their first psychology course because they are interested in helping others and want to learn more about themselves and why they act the way they do. Sometimes, students take a psychology course because it either satisfies a general education requirement or is required for a program of study such as nursing or pre-med. Many of these students develop such an interest in the area that they go on to declare psychology as their major. As a result, psychology is one of the most popular majors on college campuses across the United States. A number of well-known individuals were psychology majors. Just a few famous names on this list are Facebook’s creator Mark Zuckerberg, television personality and political satirist Jon Stewart, actress Natalie Portman, and filmmaker Wes Craven. About 6 percent of all bachelor degrees granted in the United States are in the discipline of psychology.

An education in psychology is valuable for a number of reasons. Psychology students hone critical thinking skills and are trained in the use of the scientific method. Critical thinking is the active application of a set of skills to information for the understanding and evaluation of that information. The evaluation of information—assessing its reliability and usefulness— is an important skill in a world full of competing "facts," many of which are designed to be misleading. For example, critical thinking involves maintaining an attitude of skepticism, recognizing internal biases, making use of logical thinking, asking appropriate questions, and making observations. Psychology students also can develop better communication skills during the course of their undergraduate coursework. Together, these factors increase students’ scientific literacy and prepare students to critically evaluate the various sources of information they encounter.

In addition to these broad-based skills, psychology students come to understand the complex factors that shape one’s behavior. They appreciate the interaction of our biology, our environment, and our experiences in determining who we are and how we will behave. They learn about basic principles that guide how we think and behave, and they come to recognize the tremendous diversity that exists across individuals and across cultural boundaries.

Summary

Psychology derives from the roots psyche (meaning soul) and –ology (meaning scientific study of). Thus, psychology is defined as the scientific study of mind and behavior. Students of psychology develop critical thinking skills, become familiar with the scientific method, and recognize the complexity of behavior.

History of Psychology

The history of modern psychology spans centuries, with the earliest known mention of clinical depression appearing in 1500 BCE on an ancient Egyptian manuscript known as the Ebers Papyrus. However, it wasn't until the 11th century that Persian physician Avicenna made a connection between emotions and physical responses in a practice dubbed "physiological psychology."

Understanding the history of modern psychology provides insight into how this field has developed and evolved over time. It also gives a better understanding of the thought processes of some of the most influential figures in the field, ultimately emerging into psychology as we know it today.

The Birth of Modern Psychology

Some say that modern psychology was born in the 18th century, which is largely due to William Battie's "Treatise on Madness," published in 1758. Others consider the mid-19th century experiments conducted in Hermann von Helmholtz's lab to be the origin of modern psychology.

Still others suggest that modern psychology began in 1879 when Wilhelm Wundt—also known as the father of modern psychology—established the first experimental psychology lab. From that moment forward, the study of psychology would evolve, as it still does today.

Important Events in the History of Modern Psychology

A number of important, landmark events highlight psychology's transformation throughout the years.

19th Century

In the 19th century, psychology was established as an empirical, accepted science. While measures would change, the model of research and evaluation would begin to take shape within this 100-year time span.

1869: Sir Francis Galton establishes statistical techniques to better understand the relationship between variables such as intelligence and personality in heredity studies.
1878: G. Stanley Hall becomes the first American to earn a Ph.D. in psychology.
1879: Wilhelm Wundt establishes the first experimental psychology lab in Leipzig, Germany dedicated to the study of the mind.
1883: G. Stanley Hall opens the first experimental psychology lab in the U.S. at Johns Hopkins University.
1885: Herman Ebbinghaus publishes his seminal "Über das Gedächtnis" ("On Memory"), in which he describes learning and memory experiments he conducted on himself.
1886: Sigmund Freud begins offering talk therapy known as psychoanalysis to patients in Vienna, Austria.
1888: James McKeen Cattell becomes the first professor of psychology in the United States at the University of Pennsylvania. He would later

publish "Mental Tests and Measurements," marking the advent of psychological assessment.

1890: William James publishes "Principles of Psychology," one of the most influential texts in the field of psychology.
1892: G. Stanley Hall forms the American Psychological Association (APA), enlisting 26 members in the first meeting.
1896: Lightner Witmer establishes the first psychology clinic in America and establishes guidelines for training future clinical psychologists.
1898: Edward Thorndike develops the Law of Effect, explaining how behavior is learned.

1900 to 1950

The first half of the 20th century was dominated by two major figures: Sigmund Freud and Carl Jung. During this segment of modern psychology's history, these two theorists established the foundation of analysis, including Freud's examination of the unconscious processes and psychopathology and Jung's analytic psychology.

1900: Sigmund Freud publishes his landmark book, "Interpretation of Dreams."
1901: The British Psychological Society is established.
1905: Mary Whiton Calkins is elected the first woman president of the American Psychological Association. Alfred Binet introduces the intelligence test.
1906: Ivan Pavlov publishes his findings on classical conditioning. Carl Jung publishes "The Psychology of Dementia Praecox."
1911: Edward Thorndike publishes "Animal Intelligence," which leads to the development of the theory of operant conditioning.
1912: Max Wertheimer publishes "Experimental Studies of the Perception of Movement," which leads to the development of Gestalt psychology.
1913: Carl Jung begins to depart from Freudian views and develop his own theories, which he refers to as analytical psychology. John B. Watson publishes "Psychology As the Behaviorist Views It," in which he establishes the concept of behaviorism.
1915: Freud publishes work on repression.
1920: Watson and Rosalie Rayner publish research on the classical conditioning of fear, highlighting the subject of their experiment, Little Albert.
1932: Jean Piaget becomes the foremost cognitive developmental theorist with the publication of his work "The Moral Judgment of the Child."
1935: B.F. Skinner known for his "radical behaviorism" further develops the theory of operant conditioning and researches varying schedules of reinforcement that influence the acquisition and extinction of behaviors.
1942: Carl Rogers develops the practice of client-centered therapy, which encourages respect and positive regard for patients.

1950 to 2000

The latter half of the 20th century centered around the standardization of diagnostic criteria for mental illness. The hallmark of this process was the publication of the American Psychological Association's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM). This foundational tool is still in use in modern psychology and helps direct diagnosis and treatment.

1952: The first "Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders" is published.
1954: Abraham Maslow publishes "Motivation and Personality," describing his theory of a hierarchy of needs. Maslow is one of the founders of humanistic psychology.
1958: Harry Harlow publishes "The Nature of Love," which describes the importance of attachment and love in rhesus monkeys.
1961: Albert Bandura conducts his now-famous Bobo doll experiment, in which child behavior is described as a construct of observation, imitation, and modeling.
1963: Bandura first describes the concept of observational learning to explain aggression.
1967: Ulric Neisser introduces the term cognitive psychology. Albert Ellis and Aaron Beck establish a new form of talk therapy known as cognitive therapy and cognitive-behavior therapy was soon to follow.
1968: The DSM-II is published.
1974: Stanley Milgram publishes "Obedience to Authority," which describes the findings of his famous obedience experiments.
1980: The DSM-III is published.
1990: Noam Chomsky publishes "On the Nature, Use, and Acquisition of Language."
1991: Steven Pinker publishes an article introducing his theories as to how children acquire language, which he later publishes in the book "The Language Instinct."
1994: The DSM-IV is published.

21st Century

With the advent of genetic science, psychologists began grappling with the ways in which physiology and genetics contribute to a person's psychological well-being in the 21st century.

2002: Steven Pinker publishes "The Blank Slate," arguing against the concept of tabula rasa (the theory that the mind is a blank slate at birth). Avshalom Caspi offers the first evidence that genetics are associated with a child's response to maltreatment. Psychologist Daniel Kahneman is awarded the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics for his research on how people make judgments in the face of uncertainty.
2003: Genetic researchers finish mapping human genes, with the aim of isolating the individual chromosomes responsible for physiological and neurological conditions.
2010: Simon LeVay publishes "Gay, Straight, and the Reason Why," which argues that sexual orientation emerges from prenatal differentiation in the brain.
2013: The DSM-5 is released. Among other changes, the APA removes "gender identity disorder" from the list of mental illnesses and replaces it with "gender dysphoria" to describe a person's discomfort with their assigned gender.
2014: John O'Keefe, May-Britt Moser, and Edvard Moser share the Nobel Prize for their discovery of cells that constitute a positioning system in the brain that is key to memory and navigation.

Classic Psychology Experiments and Groundbreaking Methods

Pavlov’s Conditioning Dog

Ivan Pavlov created an experiment to determine operant conditioning. Based on his observations, Pavlov suggested that the salivation was a learned response. The dogs were responding to the sight of the research assistant's white lab coats, which the animals had come to associate with the presentation of food. Unlike the salivary response to the presentation of food, which is an unconditioned reflex, salivating to the expectation of food is a conditioned reflex. This experiment is one of the most famous and notable experiments in the field of psychology.

The Little Albert Experiment

A famous psychological experiment conducted by behaviorist John B. Watson and graduate student Rosalie Rayner. The Little Albert experiment was a case study showing empirical evidence of classical conditioning in humans.

The Asch Conformity Experiment

The Asch conformity experiments were a series of psychological experiments conducted by Solomon Asch in the 1950s. The experiments revealed the degree to which a person's own opinions are influenced by those of groups. Asch found people were willing to ignore reality and give an incorrect answer in order to conform to the rest of the group.

The Milgram Obedience Experiment

Stanley Milgram developed quite an intimidating shock generator, with shock levels starting at 30 volts and increasing in 15-volt increments all the way up to 450 volts. The many switches were labeled with terms including "slight shock," "moderate shock," and "danger - severe shock." The final two switches were labeled simply with an ominous "XXX." Each participant took the role of a 'teacher' who would then deliver a shock to the 'student' every time an incorrect answer was given. While the participant believed that he was delivering real shocks to the student, the student was a confederate in the experiment who was simply pretending to be shocked. As the experiment progressed, the participant would hear the learner plead to be released or even complain about a heart condition. Once they reached the 300-volt level, the learner banged on the wall and demanded to be released. Beyond this point, the learner became completely silent and refused to answer any more questions. The experimenter then instructed the participant to treat this silence as an incorrect response and deliver a further shock.

The Stanford Prison Experiment

In 1971, psychologist Philip Zimbardo and his colleagues set out to create an experiment that looked at the impact of becoming a prisoner or prison guard. Zimbardo, a former classmate of Stanley Milgram (who is best known for his famous obedience experiment), was interested in expanding upon Milgram's initial research. He wanted to investigate further the impact of situational variables on human behavior. The researchers wanted to know how the participants would react when placed in a simulated prison environment.

Psychoanalysis (Sigmund Freud)

The method of psychological therapy originated by psychologist Sigmund Freud in which free association, dream interpretation, and analysis of resistance and transference are used to explore repressed or unconscious impulses, anxieties, and internal conflicts in order to free psychic energy for mature love and work.

Rorschach Inkblot Test

A psychoanalysis test created in 1921 by Hermann Rorschach. It was a projective psychological test consisting of 10 inkblots printed on cards, 5 cards of which are in black & white the other 5 in color. The subjects' interpretations of these inkblots helped psychologists understand the inner workings and thought patterns of the subjects' brains. This test is not commonly used in the psychology field today however.

In the 1960s, an experiment was done where a young rhesus monkey was taken from his mother two days after he was born. The monkey was left in the care of two different mothers, both of which were not the biological mother. One of the mothers was constructed of cloth fabric, but had no food, and the other was made of wire and it supplied food. Later during the experiment Harlow allowed the monkey to explore the room, sometimes with their mother and sometimes without. This experiment tested how our minds react to social isolation.

Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development

Jean Piaget strongly believed that how a child develops is one of the most vital parts in someone's life. Piaget proposed four different stages in cognitive development: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational period. This proposition of childhood development stated that a child's mind does not develop entirely smoothly. Instead, there are stages that a child hits at different development points in their early development period. In these development points, they gain different knowledge and capabilities.

Modern Approaches by AP Psychology

Psychoanalytic Approach - Based on the belief that childhood experiences greatly influence the development of later personality traits & psychological problems. From Sigmund Freud’s work.

Behavioral Approach - It is based on the concept of explaining behavior through observation, and the belief that our environment is what causes us to behave differently or suffer illnesses. The 3 main categories of behaviorism are classical, methodological, and radical.

Cognitive Approach - Revolves around the notion that if we want to know what make people tick then we need to understand the internal processes of their mind.

Humanistic Approach - An approach which studies show the whole person and the uniqueness of each individual.

Cross-Cultural Approach - Studies the influence of cultural & ethnic similarities & differences.

Biological Approach - A theory that we are the consequences of our genetics and physiology. It is only approached psychology that examines thoughts, feelings, and behaviors from a biological and physical point of view.

Evolutionary Approach - Studies how evolutionary ideas, such as adaptation & natural selection, explain behaviors & mental processes.

Modern Psychology Today

Thanks to the contributions of many experts along the way, the field of modern psychology has expanded into multiple subdivisions or specializations, including but not limited to the following branches:

Abnormal psychology: Psychopathology and abnormal behavior
Behavioral psychology: How behaviors are developed
Clinical psychology: Assessment and treatment of mental disorders
Cognitive psychology: How we think
Counseling psychology: Treating clients in mental distress
Developmental psychology: How people change throughout life
Experimental psychology: Research of the brain and behaviors
Forensic psychology: Psychology within legal settings
Health psychology: How psychology influences health and illness
School psychology: Psychology of children in educational settings
Social psychology: Social influences on psychology

Learn More

Additional Reading

American Psychological Association. (2017). 125th Anniversary APA Timeline. Retrieved from https://www.apa.org/about/apa/archives/timeline
Shiraev, E. (2014). A History of Psychology: A Global Perspective (2nd ed.). Sage Publishing.

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