The Second Wave of Positive Psychology

Positive psychology has evolved significantly since its early days. Initially focused on promoting positive emotions, such as happiness and strengths, the discipline has broadened to embrace both positive and negative experiences.

This approach, known as the "Second Wave" of positive psychology, recognizes that negative emotions and events can contribute significantly to personal growth and human flourishing.

In the first wave, psychology was heavily criticized for focusing too much on weaknesses and dysfunctions, neglecting the positive aspects of life. After World War II, this led to an emphasis on disease and mental illness, contributing to what is now known as a "weakness focus." This approach, while valuable in understanding and treating disorders, limited our understanding of human strengths and well-being. The second wave seeks to address this limitation by recognizing that well-being is a balance of both positive and negative experiences.

Second wave positive psychology

Initially, the strong focus of positive psychology on the positive side of human functioning was introduced as a necessary step to restore the misbalance that was created by the negative view that dominated psychology. However, the strong focus on positive experiences, traits, thoughts, and emotions carries the implicit message that people should strive mainly for positive experiences and should avoid negative experiences. While “psychology as usual” was criticized by positive sychologists for its almost exclusive focus on repairing weakness, positive psychology has been criticized for adopting an almost exclusive focus on well-being and positive outcomes. The excessive embracing of the positive can be conceptualized as the “first wave positive psychology.” Although this second generation of positive psychology remains focused on increasing wellbeing, it appreciates the ambivalent and complex nature of the field by:
• recognizing that seemingly negative experiences can contribute to positive aspects of human functioning and transformation;
• recognizing that seemingly positive qualities and experiences can be detrimental to well-being under certain circumstances;
• acknowledging the importance of coping with negative thoughts, experiences, and behaviors.

Why Negative Emotions Matter

In the second wave of positive psychology, scholars recognize that negative emotions—such as anger, sadness, or even stress—can have a positive role in human development. These emotions often act as catalysts for change, motivating individuals to overcome adversity and grow stronger.

  • Anger: Often perceived as destructive, anger can be a powerful motivator for justice. For example, Martin Luther King Jr. channeled his anger into the civil rights movement, demonstrating how this "negative" emotion can drive positive societal change.

  • Sadness: Though uncomfortable, sadness can deepen empathy and promote personal reflection, often leading to growth.

While early positive psychology focused almost exclusively on well-being and happiness, the second wave embraces the complexity of human experience. Excessive positivity can lead to avoidance of reality, which in turn can hinder emotional processing and personal development. Negative experiences, when processed constructively, offer opportunities for resilience, learning, and growth.

INTERDEPENDENCE

Human development, like all things, has multiple dimensions—positive and negative. Many people desire a life filled with positive experiences and devoid of negative ones. This desire is rooted in the belief that negative experiences are inherently 'bad' and positive experiences are inherently 'good.' However, this perspective overlooks the reality that both are inseparable parts of life, much like good versus bad, beauty versus ugliness, small versus large. These opposites only exist in relation to one another; they cannot exist independently. Goodness can only be understood in the presence of badness, and light is meaningful because of darkness. A teacher exists only because there are students, and opposites are always two sides of the same coin.

This coin is made up of two halves—two opposites. When one half disappears, the other ceases to exist. In this sense, both halves (bad/student/grief) make the existence and experience of the other (good/teacher/pleasure) possible. Simply put, we need the bad to fully appreciate the good in life.

When positive psychology is seen as a way to eliminate the negative, we lose touch with reality. The study of stress, coping, and adaptation reveals how positive and negative experiences are intertwined. A psychology of human flourishing isn't about avoiding or ignoring negative experiences; it's about understanding the interdependence of positive and negative aspects of life.

PARADOXES

Perceiving negative events as inherently “bad” often leads to attempts at control or avoidance, yet research shows that trying to suppress such experiences can paradoxically intensify them—a phenomenon called the ironic process of control. This aligns with both Western and Chinese philosophical traditions that emphasize the importance of balance and acceptance in life. In the West, the Stoic philosophers advocated for accepting life’s challenges without excessive reaction, much like how Chinese Daoism encourages living in harmony with the natural flow (道) of life. Both philosophies highlight that trying to force control can disrupt balance.

As seen in studies such as Wegner’s white bear experiment, the more participants tried not to think about the bear, the more it consumed their thoughts. Those trying to avoid the thought rang a bell significantly more often than those without the same goal.

These findings suggest that efforts to control or avoid experiences can backfire, making the very thing we want to avoid stronger. This applies to positive feelings as well. Focusing too much on achieving happiness can paradoxically reduce feelings of happiness. The discrepancy between the desired state (happiness) and the current state (not happy enough) becomes more apparent .

This reflects the Daoist concept of wu wei (无为), or “action without force,” which teaches that excessive striving often leads to counterproductive results. Similarly, attempts to control positive emotions, like constantly seeking happiness, can diminish those very feelings. This aligns with the Confucian idea of moderation (中庸), which advocates for balanced responses and cautions against extremes in pursuit of personal well-being.

Both Western and Eastern traditions suggest that rigid control over life’s experiences leads to imbalance and similar results have been found in studies related to sleep and eating behaviors .

Thus, positive thinking is not always helpful, especially when used to avoid or control negative experiences. This form of experiential avoidance is linked to various negative outcomes . Third-wave therapies like mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) and acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT) emphasize acceptance-based coping—embracing both positive and negative experiences rather than avoiding them. As King noted, flourishing is not about becoming a “well-defended fortress invulnerable to life’s challenges,” but about embracing the complexities of existence.

WHEN NEGATIVE BECOMES POSITIVE: THE POWER OF ADVERSITY

Challenging life events, such as severe illness or trauma, can lead to major positive changes—a process known as benefit finding. Helgeson et al. define it as “the positive effects that result from a traumatic event.” Many people, after experiencing adversity, report newfound strength, purpose, spirituality, or stronger relationships. Studies on post-traumatic growth and lifespan development suggest that mastering difficulties can foster long-term personal growth. These findings show that what is perceived as ‘negative’ can lead to positive outcomes when approached in the right way.

Philosophical traditions around the world, including Chinese Confucianism and Western existentialism, recognize that hardship and adversity can be sources of growth and transformation. This concept of benefit finding—discovering positive change through difficult experiences—is echoed in both traditions. In Confucianism, the process of personal development (修身) often arises through overcoming challenges, just as Western thinkers like Nietzsche suggested that suffering can lead to personal strength: “What doesn’t kill me makes me stronger.”

Post-traumatic growth, as seen in individuals who report a renewed sense of purpose, spirituality, or stronger relationships after adversity, reinforces the idea that difficulty is a natural part of life’s process, essential for personal evolution. In Chinese philosophy, the interplay of yin and yang teaches that darkness is necessary for light to be appreciated—without hardship, there can be no triumph. Both traditions emphasize that negative experiences are not simply obstacles to be avoided but can serve as catalysts for deeper understanding and personal growth.

WHEN POSITIVE BECOMES NEGATIVE: THE DANGERS OF EXTREMES

Even positive traits can have negative effects when taken to extremes. Excessive optimism, for example, can lead people to lose touch with reality, underestimating risks and making poor decisions.

Both Chinese and Western philosophy caution against the dangers of extremes, even in positive traits. In Chinese thought, the principle of zhong yong (中庸), or the Doctrine of the Mean, stresses balance and moderation in all aspects of life. Similarly, Aristotle’s concept of the “Golden Mean” teaches that virtues lie between excess and deficiency. For instance, courage exists between recklessness and cowardice, just as optimism must be tempered by realism to avoid poor decision-making.

Studies have shown that excessive optimism can blind people to risks, leading to failure or disappointment.

Similarly, the literature on personal choice shows that while choice can increase motivation and satisfaction, too much choice can cause dissatisfaction and regret. For instance, participants choosing a chocolate from 30 options were less satisfied than those choosing from only 6. As seen in experiments where participants were overwhelmed by a plethora of options.

Both Chinese and Western philosophies warn that excess, even in seemingly positive attributes, can be harmful.

In short, moderation is key, as the ancient Roman dramatist Publius Terentius Afer said, “Ne quid nimis” — “All things in moderation.”

This wisdom is echoed by Confucianism’s call for balance, reminding us that moderation is essential for a well-lived life.

Both Chinese and Western philosophies support the notion that balance, moderation, and the interdependence of opposites are essential for understanding life’s complexities. True flourishing, as both traditions suggest, arises not from avoiding the negative but from embracing life’s full spectrum with grace and equanimity.

Key Principles of the Second Wave

The second wave of positive psychology is guided by four core principles:

  1. Valuation: Avoid labeling experiences as purely positive or negative. Context matters; traits like optimism or pessimism may be either beneficial or harmful depending on the situation.

  2. Co-valence: Many experiences have both positive and negative aspects. Hope, for example, often brings anxiety about the future alongside optimism.

  3. Complementarity: Opposites, such as love and loss, coexist and complement each other. The deeper the love, the greater the risk of loss, highlighting the interconnection of emotions.

  4. Evolution: This principle acknowledges that psychology has evolved from focusing on dysfunction (the "thesis") to the exclusive promotion of positive states (the "antithesis") and now towards a more balanced approach that integrates both perspectives (the "synthesis").

Understanding the Role of Negative Experiences

A major shift in the second wave is the recognition that negative experiences can lead to positive growth. Research on benefit-finding and post-traumatic growth has demonstrated that individuals often experience significant personal development after facing adversity. For example, people report greater resilience, deeper relationships, and enhanced life purpose following challenging life events such as illness or trauma.

Paradoxes and the Limits of Positivity

Positive traits, when taken to extremes, can also have detrimental effects. Excessive optimism, for instance, can lead to unrealistic expectations and poor decision-making. Similarly, having too many choices can reduce satisfaction, as shown in studies where participants were less happy with their choices when presented with a wide array of options. These paradoxes underscore the importance of balance in emotional regulation.

Integrating Positive and Negative for Holistic Well-being

The second wave of positive psychology, inspired by third-wave therapies such as mindfulness and acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT), encourages embracing both positive and negative experiences. Acceptance-based coping strategies focus on living with both types of experiences, rather than avoiding or controlling them.

This balanced approach leads to a fuller understanding of well-being. By accepting the complexities of life, individuals can foster resilience and adaptability, allowing for a richer, more authentic experience of happiness.

Conclusion

The second wave of positive psychology provides a more comprehensive view of human well-being, emphasizing the value of both positive and negative experiences. By moving beyond the simplistic dichotomy of "positive is good" and "negative is bad," this approach encourages us to embrace the full spectrum of human emotions, leading to more resilient and meaningful lives.

References

  1. Beck, A. T. (1999). Prisoners of Hate: The Cognitive Basis of Anger, Hostility, and Violence. New York: Harper Collins.
  2. Held, B. S. (2004). The negative side of positive psychology. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 44(1), 9–46.
  3. Held, B. S. (2002). The tyranny of the positive attitude in America: Observation and speculation. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 58(9), 965–991. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.10093
  4. Held, B. S. (2001). Stop Smiling, Start Kvetching: A 5-Step Guide to Creative Complaining. New York: St. Martin’s Griffin.
  5. Ivtzan, I., Lomas, T., Hefferson, K., & Worth, P. (2015). Second Wave Positive Psychology: Embracing the Dark Side of Life. London: Routledge.
  6. McNulty, J. K. (2010). When positive processes hurt relationships. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 19(3), 167–171.
  7. McNulty, J. K., & Fincham, F. D. (2012). Beyond positive psychology? Toward a contextual view of psychological processes and well-being. American Psychologist, 67(2), 101–110. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0024572
  8. Norem, J. K., & Chang, E. C. (2002). The positive psychology of negative thinking. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 58(9), 993–1001.
  9. Norem, J. K. (2001). The Positive Power of Negative Thinking. New York: Basic Books.
  10. Lazarus, R. S. (2003). The Lazarus manifesto for positive psychology and psychology in general. Psychological Inquiry, 14(2), 173–189.
  11. Lomas, T. (2016). Flourishing as a dialectical balance: Emerging insights from second-wave positive psychology. Palgrave Communications, 2, 16018. https://doi.org/10.1057/palcomms.2016.18
  12. Lomas, T., & Ivtzan, I. (2016). Second wave positive psychology: Exploring the positive-negative dialectics of well-being. Journal of Happiness Studies, 17(4), 1753–1768. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-015-9668-y
  13. Sinclair, E., Hart, R., & Lomas, T. (2020). Can positivity be counterproductive when suffering domestic abuse?: A narrative review. International Journal of Wellbeing, 10(1), 26–53. https://doi.org/10.5502/ijw.v10i1.754
  14. Wong, P. T. P. (2011). Positive psychology 2.0: Towards a balanced interactive model of the good life. Canadian Psychology/Psychologie Canadienne, 52(2), 69–81.
  15. Zembylas, M. (2007). Mobilizing anger for social justice: The politicization of the emotions in education. Teaching Education, 18(1), 15–28. https://doi.org/10.1080/10476210601151516
  16. Wegner, D. M. (1994). Ironic processes of mental control. Psychological Review, 101, 34–52.
  17. Wegner, D. M., Schneider, D. J., Carter, S. R., & White, T. L. (1987). Paradoxical effects of thought suppression. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53, 5–13.
  18. Harvey, A. G. (2003). The attempted suppression of presleep cognitive activity in insomnia. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 27, 593–602.
  19. McFarlane, T., Polivy, J., & McCabe, R. E. (1999). Help, not harm: Psychological foundation for a nondieting approach toward health. Journal of Social Issues, 55, 261–276.
  20. Mauss, I. B., Tamir, M., Anderson, C. L., & Savino, N. S. (2011). Can seeking happiness make people unhappy? Paradoxical effects of valuing happiness. Emotion, 11, 807–815.
  21. Hayes, S. C., Strosahl, K. D., & Wilson, K. G. (1999). Acceptance and Commitment Therapy: An Experiential Approach to Behavior Change. New York, NY: Guilford Press.
  22. Hayes, S. C., Wilson, K. G., Gifford, E. V., Follette, V. M., & Strosahl, K. D. (1996). Experiential avoidance and behavioral disorders: A functional dimensional approach to diagnosis and treatment. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 64, 1152–1160.
  23. Kabat-Zinn, J. (1982). An outpatient program in behavioral medicine for chronic pain patients based on the practice of mindfulness meditation: Theoretical considerations and preliminary results. General Hospital Psychiatry, 33–47.
  24. Kabat-Zinn, J. (1990). Full Catastrophe Living: Using the Wisdom of Your Body and Mind to Face Stress, Pain, and Illness. New York, NY: Delacorte.
  25. Sheldon, K. M., & King, L. (2001). Why positive psychology is necessary. American Psychologist, 56, 216–217.
  26. Helgeson, V. S., Reynolds, K. A., & Tomich, P. L. (2006). A meta-analytic review of benefit finding and growth. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 74, 797–816.
  27. Linley, P. A., & Joseph, S. (2004). Positive change following trauma and adversity: A review. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 17, 11–21.
  28. Affleck, G., & Tennen, H. (1996). Construing benefits from adversity: Adaptational significance and dispositional underpinnings. Journal of Personality, 64, 899–922.
  29. Davis, M. H., Morris, M. M., & Kraus, L. A. (1998). Relationship-specific and global perceptions of social support: Associations with well-being and attachment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 468–481.
  30. McMillen, J. C., Smith, E. M., & Fisher, R. H. (1997). Perceived benefit and mental health after three types of disaster. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 65, 733–739.
  31. Elder, G. H. (1998). The life course as developmental theory. Child Development, 69, 1–12.
  32. Weinstein, N. D., Marcus, S. E., & Moser, R. P. (2005). Smokers’ unrealistic optimism about their risk. Tobacco Control, 14, 55–59.
  33. Deci, E. L. (1976). Notes on the theory and metatheory of intrinsic motivation. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 15, 130–145.
  34. Deci, E. L. (1980). The Psychology of Self-Determination. Free Press.
  35. Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1985). The general causality orientations scale: Self-determination in personality. Journal of Research in Personality, 19, 109–134.
  36. Glass, D. C., & Singer, J. E. (1972). Behavioral aftereffects of unpredictable and uncontrollable aversive events: Although subjects were able to adapt to loud noise and other stressors in laboratory experiments, they clearly demonstrated adverse aftereffects. American Scientist, 60, 457–465.
  37. Glass, D. C., & Singer, J. E. (1972). Urban Stress: Experiments on Noise and Social Stressors. New York, NY: Academic Press.
  38. Langer, E. J., & Rodin, J. (1976). The effects of enhanced personal responsibility for the aged. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 34, 191–198.
  39. Rotter, J. B. (1966). Generalized expectancies for internal versus external control of reinforcement. Psychological Monographs: General and Applied, 80, 1–28.
  40. Schulz, R., & Hanusa, B. H. (1978). Long-term effects of control and predictability-enhancing interventions: Findings and ethical issues. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 36, 1194–1201.
  41. Taylor, C. (1989). Sources of the Self: The Making of the Modern Identity. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
  42. Taylor, S. E., & Brown, J. D. (1988). Illusion and well-being: A social psychological perspective on mental health. Psychological Bulletin, 103, 193–210.
  43. Iyengar, S. S., & Lepper, M. R. (2000). When choice is demotivating: Can one desire too much of a good thing? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79, 995–1006.

Related Posts:

Learn More

Did you like it? Help us spread the word!

Read More Psychology Articles

Explore More Psychology Resources